COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF PHYSICOCHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF FOOD-GRADE SALT FROM DIFFERENT REGIONS OF THE WORLD
Abstract
Food-grade salt is not only an essential dietary component for maintaining bodily homeostasis but also an important raw material for pharmaceutical and industrial applications. Despite its biological necessity, excessive sodium chloride consumption poses health risks, highlighting the need for systematic assessment of the quality and functional composition of salt available on the national market. This study aimed to conduct a comparative analysis of the physicochemical parameters of commercial food-grade salt samples of various geographical origins (Italy, Turkey, Egypt, Romania, and Pakistan) and extraction methods to objectively evaluate their consumer quality. The study examined samples of rock, sea, vacuum-evaporated, and Himalayan salt. The following parameters were measured: pH (active acidity), total alkalinity, mass fraction of moisture, water-insoluble residue, and iodine content using potentiometric, gravimetric, and iodometric methods. Statistical data processing was performed using Statistica 10 software. Most samples complied with the requirements of DSTU 3583:2015. Moisture content ranged from 0.08% (vacuum-evaporated salt) to 1.20% (sea salt); however, a rock salt sample from Egypt exceeded the applicable standard limit (0.89%), resulting in a loss of flowability. The water-insoluble residue was highest in Himalayan pink salt (0.71%), a natural characteristic of its mineral composition, while sea salt from Italy demonstrated the highest degree of purification (0.06%). Solution pH values fluctuated between 6.70 and 7.63. Significant variability in total alkalinity was observed (1.57–2.47 g/dm³). Analysis of iodized salt proved critical: only 60% of the samples met the regulatory range (25–55 mg/kg). In 40% of the iodized samples, the iodine content was found to be critically low (6.34–20.08 mg/kg). Samples No. 8 and No. 10 demonstrated the highest compliance, with actual iodine levels fully matching label claims. The findings suggest that the high cost of imported samples does not always guarantee superior iodization compared to more affordable counterparts. The results emphasize the necessity for strict control over salt storage conditions to prevent moisture absorption and highlight the importance of monitoring actual iodine levels, which remain insufficient in several commercial samples to meet the physiological requirements of the population.
References
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Protano C. et al. (2023) Balneotherapy for osteoarthritis: a systematic review. Rheumatology international. no. 43(9), pp. 1597–1610. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00296-023-05358-7
Dumitrescu M., et al. (2022) Benefits of crenotherapy in digestive tract pathology. Experimental and Therapeutic Medicine. No. 23(2), P. 1–5. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3892/etm.2021.11045
Bernal, A., Zafra, M.A., Simón, M.J., Mahía, J. 2023. Sodium homeostasis, a balance necessary for life. Nutrients, no. 15(2), 395. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/nu15020395
Biber, F.Z., Unak, P., Yurt, F. (2002) Stability of iodine content in iodized salt. Isotopes Environ Health Stud. No. 38(2). Р. 87–93. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/10256010208033316
Deng Z. et al. (2023) Characteristics and purification of Himalayan salt by high temperature melting. High Temperature Materials and Processes. no. 42(1). 20220274. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1515/htmp-2022-0274
Chervinskaya, A.V., Zilber, N.A. (1995). Halotherapy for treatment of respiratory diseases. J Aerosol Med., no. 8(3), pp. 221–232. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1089/jam.1995.8.221
Codină, G.G., Voinea, A., Dabija, A. (2021). Strategies for Reducing Sodium Intake in Bakery Products, a Review. Appl. Sci., no. 11, 3093. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/app11073093
Doh, H., Lee, M.H., Park, H.J. (2019) Investigation of the moisture-induced caking behavior with various dietary salts. Journal of Food Engineering, no. 241, pp. 67–74.
Hoppu U. et al. (2017) Effect of Salt Reduction on Consumer Acceptance and Sensory Quality of Food. Foods. no. 6 (12). 103. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/foods6120103
Elias, M., Laranjo, M., Agulheiro-Santos, A.C., Potes, M.E. (2020). The role of salt on food and human health. Salt in the Earth, no. 19, pp. 1–19. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.86905
Emelike, N.J.T., Achinewhu, S.C., Ebere, C.O. (2017). Effect of storage on the iodine content of some table salts sold at a local and a super market in Port Harcourt, Nigeria. Sky Journal of Food Science, no. 6(1), pp. 1–6.
E. Di Salvo et al. (2023) Gourmet table salts: The mineral composition showdown. Toxics. no. 11(8), 705. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics11080705
Hassan, A.U., Din, A.M.U., Ali, S. (2017). Chemical characterisation of Himalayan rock salt. Pakistan Journal of Scientific & Industrial Research Series A: Physical Sciences, no. 60(2), pp. 67–71.
Nepal A. K. et al. (2013) Household salt iodine content estimation with the use of rapid test kits and iodometric titration methods. Journal of clinical and diagnostic research. no. 7(5). p. 892–895. DOI: https://doi.org/10.7860/JCDR/2013/5477.2969
Kamińska, M.; Krusiec-Świdergoł, B. (2023). Wykorzystanie terapeutycznych właściwości soli w profilaktyce i leczeniu chorób układu oddechowego. Państwo I Społeczeństwo, no. 23, pp. 135–149. DOI: https://doi.org/10.48269/2451-0858-pis-2023-1-010
Kamyshna I., Pavlovych L., Maslyanko V., Сhornenka Z. (2021). Epidemiological assessment of dymamics of the prevalence and incidence of the thyroid gland diseases in Ukraine and Chernivtsi region. Clinical and experimental hathology, no. 20(3), pp. 75–81. DOI: https://doi.org/10.24061/1727-4338.XX.3.77.2021.11.
Kołodziejski, J. (2022). Charakterystyka rynku soli w Polsce na przykładzie Kopalni Soli „Kłodawa” SA. Min. Inform. Autom. Electr. Eng., no. 549, pp. 1–16. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/ma17143564
Laikoja, K., Teder, L., Jõudu, I. (2017). Assessment of chemical and sensory quality of unsalted and salted sweet cream butter during storage at different temperatures and time. J. Agric. Sci., no. 2, pp. 76–81. DOI: https://doi.org/10.15159/jas.17.09
Mamenko, M.E. (2020). Iodine deficiency in the world and in Ukraine: current state of the problem. Modern Pediatrics. Ukraine, no. 7(111), pp. 40–46. DOI: https://doi.org/15574/SP.2020.111.40
Mohamed, E.T., Mahmood, F.N., Merie, G.M.S., Saadi, A.M. (2025). The Medical Importance of Sodium and Potassium. International Journal of Pharma Growth Research Review, no. 2(2), pp. 01–10. DOI: https://doi.org/10.54660/IJPGRR.2025.2.2.01-10
L.R. Zanela Lima et al. (2025) Origin Identification of Table Salt Using Flame Atomic Absorption and Portable Near-Infrared Spectrometries. Chemosensors. no. 13(7). 231. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/chemosensors13070231
Polishchuk, V., Tsekhmistrenko, S., Polishchuk, S., Rol, N. (2026). Salt literacy among youth: the gap between theoretical knowledge and dietary habits. Collection of Scientific Papers with Proceedings of the 4 th International Scientific and Practical Conference. International Scientific Unity. January 21–23, 2026. Zagreb, Croatia, pp. 103–105. DOI: https://doi.org/10.70286/ISU-21.01.2026
Aljuraiban G.S. et al. (2021) Sodium intake, health implications, and the role of population-level strategies. Nutr. Rev. no. 79. p. 351–359. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/nutrit/nuaa042
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